Title IX: Empowerment Through Education
  • Title
  • Home
  • Historical Context
    • Prior Conditions
    • Road to Title IX
  • Revolution
    • Important Players
    • Breadth of Title IX
  • Reaction
    • The 1970's
    • The 1980's
    • The 1990's
    • The 21st century
  • Reform
    • Higher Education
    • Athletics>
      • Athletic Opportunities
      • Women in Coaching
      • Promoting Athletics
    • Perceptions of Women
    • Sex Discrimination
    • World Impact
  • So What
    • Future
  • Conclusion
  • Political Cartoons
  • Research
    • Process Paper
    • Annotated Bibliography
    • Interview Transcripts>
      • Billie Jean King
      • Donna Lopiano
      • Carrie Lukas
      • Tom Osborne
      • Arne Duncan
      • Bernice Sandler

"... all women and men are created equal
and made unequal only by socialization".
- Declaration of Women's Independence, Bread and Roses,1970


Prior Conditions

 Before the 1970s, women were stereotyped as homemakers. They were discouraged from pursuing education and professional careers.

Prior Perception




"Women Know Your Limits"
Source: BBC World Wide Channel

Prior Education

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"Luci Baines Johnson, was refused readmission to Georgetown University's school of nursing after her marriage: in 1966, the school did not permit married women to be students." 
Source: U.S. Department of Education, Title IX: 25 Years of Progress, June 1997

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"During Congressional hearings on discrimination against women, Rep. Martha Griffiths (D-MI) testified that in Virginia in 1970, 21,000 women and no men were turned down for admission to state schools. (09/71)" 
Source: Feminist Chronicles, 1971

The Lawsuits

Due to the increasing amount of sex discrimination in higher education, many pro-women organizations, like NOW, WEAL, etc. filed lawsuits against universities.

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"While volunteering for the Women's Equity Action League from 1969 to 1971, Dr. Sandler worked to enforce an Executive Order [11246] signed by President Lyndon Johnson that prohibited sex discrimination within organizations with federal contracts." - Bernice R. Sandler, Maryland State Archives

"In January 1970, she [Dr. Sandler] and a small band of women (and a few “men of goodwill”) filed the first complaints against every college with federal contracts, about 250 of them. “It was very easy to do,” she recalled"  -"The Real Story Behind the Passage of Title IX 35 Years Ago", Women in Higher Education, 1998-2012


Go to "Road To Title IX" page
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